Diagnosis of cause-effect relationships in gender mobility in large Brazilian cities
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14295/transportes.v29i3.2662Keywords:
Gender mobility, Causal inference, Structural equation modelingAbstract
Despite recurrent efforts to characterize the different patterns of mobility by gender in the North and Global South, the causal relationships that determine this phenomenon are still unclear. This article seeks to explain the part of these differences that stems from the sexual division of labor, through confirmatory quantitative analyses. Based on a conceptual representation of the problems built upon the literature, a causal diagram was constructed which translates the cause-effect hypotheses of interest and controls the possible sources of confounding. Data from the São Paulo OD survey were used in the estimation of structural equation models, which confirmed causal explanations based on three key elements: household assignments, professional insertion, and accessibility. Evidence was found that the social impositions arising from the sexual division of labor impact on trip production and time budget limitations, with heterogeneous causal processes being observed not only between genders but also among income groups.
Downloads
References
ABEP. (2018) Alterações na aplicação do Critério Brasil, válidas a partir de 16/04/2018. São Paulo: ABEP. Available at: < https://www.abep.org/criterioBr/01_cceb_2018.pdf> (accessed: 21/03/2022).
Bollen, K. A. and Bauldry, S. (2011) Three Cs in Measurement Models: Causal Indicators, Composite Indicators, and Covariates. Psychological Methods, 16(3), 265–284. DOI: 10.1037/a0024448 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024448
Brown, T. A. (2006) Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research. Methodology in the Social Sciences. New York: The Guilford Press.
CIVITAS. (2014) Gender equality and mobility: Mind the gap!. European Union, 1–48. Available at: <https://civitas.eu/sites/default/files/civ_pol-an2_m_web.pdf> (accessed: 21/03/2022).
Crane, R. (2007) Is there a quiet revolution in women’s travel? Revisiting the gender gap in commuting. Journal of the American Planning Association, 73(3), 298–316. DOI: 10.1080/01944360708977979. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01944360708977979
Duchène, C. (2011) Discussion Paper No. 2011-11: Gender and Transport. International Transport Forum. Available at: <https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/dp201111.pdf> (accessed: 21/03/2022).
Fanning Madden, J. (1981) Why Women Work Closer to Home. Urban Studies, 18(2), 181–94. DOI: 10.1080/00420988120080341 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00420988120080341
Geurs, K.T. and B. Van Wee (2004) Accessibility Evaluation of Land-Use and Transport Strategies: Review and Research Directions. Journal of Transport Geography, 12, 127-140. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2003.10.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2003.10.005
Gimenez-Nadal, J. I. and J. A. Molina (2016) Commuting time and household responsibilities: Evidence using propensity score matching. Journal of Regional Science, 56(2), 332–359. DOI: 10.1111/jors.12243 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jors.12243
Gonzalez, K. D.; A. L. Machado; B. B. Alves; V. I. Raffo; S. G. Gomez and I. Portabales (2020) Why does she move?: A study of women’s mobility in Latin American cities. Washington: World Bank. DOI: 10.1596/33466 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/33466
Grace, J. B. and K. A. Bollen (2008) Representing general theoretical concepts in structural equation models: The role of composite variables. Environmental and Ecological Statistics, 15(2), 191–213. DOI: 10.1007/s10651-007-0047-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10651-007-0047-7
Hanson, S. (2010) Gender and mobility: New approaches for informing sustainability. Gender, Place and Culture, 17(1), 5–23. DOI: 10.1080/09663690903498225 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690903498225
Hanson, S. and I. Johnston (1985) Gender differences in work-trip length: Explanations and implications. Urban Geography, 6(3), 193–219. DOI: 10.2747/0272-3638.6.3.193 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.6.3.193
Hoyle, R. H. (2012) Handbook of Structural Equation Modeling. New York: The Guilford Press.
Kergoat, D. (2003) Divisão sexual do trabalho e relações sociais de sexo. In Emílio, M.; M. Teixeira e M. Nobre (eds.) . Trabalho e cidadania ativa para as mulheres: Desafios para as Políticas Públicas. São Paulo: Coordenadoria Especial da Mulher, pp. 55–63.
Kline, R. (2011) Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. Third Edition. New York: The Guilford Press.
Lecompte, M. C. and B. S. Juan Pablo (2017) Transport systems and their impact on gender equity. Transportation Research Procedia, 25, 4245–4257. DOI: 10.1016/j.trpro.2017.05.230 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2017.05.230
Macêdo, B.; D. G. L. Pinto; M. F. Siqueira; A. S. Lopes and C. F. G. Loureiro (2020) Caracterização das diferenças do padrãode mobilidade de mulheres e homens em grandes cidades brasileiras. Transportes, 28(4), p. 89–102. DOI: 10.14295/transportes.v28i4.2410. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14295/transportes.v28i4.2410
Miralles-Guasch, C.; M. M. Melo and O. Marquet (2016) A gender analysis of everyday mobility in urban and rural territories: from challenges to sustainability. Gender, Place and Culture, 23(3), 398–417. DOI: 10.1080/0966369X.2015.1013448 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2015.1013448
Motte-Baumvol, B. and O. Bonin (2018) The spatial dimensions of immobility in France. Transportation, 45(5),1231-1247. DOI: 10.1007/s11116-017-9763-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-017-9763-5
Pearl, J. (2000) Causality: Models, reasoning, and inference. First Edition. New York: Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511803161 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511803161
Pearl, J. and D. Mackenzie (2018). The Book of Why: The New Science of Cause and Effect. New York: Basic Books, Inc. DOI: 10.1080/01621459.2020.1721245 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.2020.1721245
Peters, D. (2001) Gender and transport in less developed countries : A background paper in preparation for CSD-9. Gender Perspectives for Earth Summit 2002: Energy, Transport, Information for Decision Making, 1–30. Available at: <https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150372464> (accessed: 21/03/2022).
Pinheiro, L.; N. O. Fontoura; A. C. Querino; A. Bonetti and W. Rosa (2009) Retrato das desigualdades de gênero e raça. Third Edition. Brasília: Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada.
Prashker, J.; Y. Shiftan and P. Hershkovitch-Sarusi (2008) Residential choice location, gender and the commute trip to work in Tel Aviv. Journal of Transport Geography, 16, 332–341. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2008.02.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2008.02.001
Root, A. and L. Schinder (1999) Women, motorization and the environment. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 4(5), 353–355. DOI: 10.1016/S1361-9209(99)00012-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1361-9209(99)00012-7
Rosenbloom, S. (2006) Understanding Women’s and Men’s Travel Patterns: The Research Challenge. Conference on Research on Women’s Issues in Transportation, 1(35), 7–28. DOI: 10.17226/23274 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17226/23274
Rosenbloom, S. and M. Plessis-Fraissard (2010) Women’s Travel in Developed and Developing Countries. Transportation Research Board Conference Proceedings 46. DOI: 10.17226/22901 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17226/22901
Scheiner, J. and C. Holz-Rau (2017) Women’s complex daily lives: a gendered look at trip chaining and activity pattern entropy in Germany. Transportation, 44(1), 117–138. DOI: 10.1007/s11116-015-9627-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-015-9627-9
Shipley, B. (2016) Cause and Correlation in Biology. Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Srinivasan, S. and P. Rogers (2005) Travel behavior of low-income residents: Studying two contrasting locations in the city of Chennai, India. Journal of Transport Geography, 13(3), 265–274. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2004.07.008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2004.07.008
Svab, H. (2016) Evolução dos padrões de deslocamento na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo: A necessidade de uma análise de gênero. Master’s Thesis. Escola Politecnica, Universidade de São Paulo. São Paulo. DOI: 10.11606/D.3.2016.tde-30092016-142308 DOI: https://doi.org/10.11606/D.3.2016.tde-30092016-142308
Vance, C. and R. Lovanna (2007) Gender and the automobile: Analysis of nonwork service trips. Transportation Research Record, (2013), 54–61. DOI: 10.3141/2013-08 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3141/2013-08
Venter, C.; V. Vokolkova and J. Michalek, (2007) Gender, residential location, and household travel: Empirical findings from low-income urban settlements in Durban, South Africa. Transport Reviews, 27(6), 653–677. DOI: 10.1080/01441640701450627 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01441640701450627
Wooldridge, J. M. (2013) Introductory econometrics : a modern approach. 7th Edition. Boston: Cengage Learning.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2021 Matheus Fontenelle Siqueira, Carlos Felipe Grangeiro Loureiro, André Soares Lopes
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who submit papers for publication by TRANSPORTES agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant TRANSPORTES the right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors may enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of this journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in TRANSPORTES.
- Authors are allowed and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) after publication of the article. Authors are encouraged to use links to TRANSPORTES (e.g., DOIs or direct links) when posting the article online, as TRANSPORTES is freely available to all readers.
- Authors have secured all necessary clearances and written permissions to published the work and grant copyright under the terms of this agreement. Furthermore, the authors assume full responsibility for any copyright infringements related to the article, exonerating ANPET and TRANSPORTES of any responsibility regarding copyright infringement.
- Authors assume full responsibility for the contents of the article submitted for review, including all necessary clearances for divulgation of data and results, exonerating ANPET and TRANSPORTES of any responsibility regarding to this aspect.
